The association between use of teeth and type of food was not perfect sometimes skin was cut with incisors and bones were cracked with carnassials. Repeated chewing motions were most common in all species when eating the toughest foods, i.e., skin or muscle in combination with bone. Bones usually were cracked with the premolars in hyenas and the postcarnassial molars in wild dogs. Skin tended to be cut with the carnassials in association with a slight pull, whereas muscle was more likely to be pulled from the carcass by the incisors. There were significant interactions between use of teeth and type of food, and use of teeth and action of neck, in all species. Based on videotapes of feeding behavior on carcasses of ungulates, the associations among use of teeth, motion of jaw, action of neck, use of paws, and type of food were compiled. The validity of these presumed correlations between form and function was explored in a field study of feeding behavior in four sympatric species of free-ranging African carnivores African lion (Panthera leo), cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), and wild dog (Lycaon pictus). Future research directions are discussed with respect to assessment of keeper attitudes and behaviors, animal fear, positive measures of welfare, and positive reinforcement training.Ĭarnivores exhibit a diverse array of teeth, including peg-like incisors, elongate canines, blade-like carnassials, and rounded, bunodont molars, all of which are presumed to be adapted for particular functions, such as slicing flesh or cracking bones. (5) Keeper-animal relationships are likely to be reciprocal as evidenced by a negative correlation of Job Satisfaction with animal Fear of People. (4) Wild-born black rhino and parent-reared maned wolf have significantly less affinity to keepers than their captive-born or hand-reared counterparts, but neither differs in Fear of People. (3) Keepers who locomote or make unexpected noises when calling their animals elicit increased aggression or apprehension from maned wolves and cheetahs. Among keepers who go in with their animals, a significant negative correlation between Frequency of Feeding/Early Feedtime and average Affinity to Keeper of their animals, and a positive correlation between Keeper Experience and their animals' Fear of People, indicates that certain zoo keeping styles or habits among experienced keepers might be aversive and increase fear among animals. (2) The quality of KAR is influenced by whether the zookeeper goes in the enclosure with the animal or not, the frequency and time of feeding, and keeper visibility to the animal. (1) Significant species differences were found for Affinity to Keeper and Fear of People, and the interaction of these two dimensions of animal response to keepers appears to be species-specific. Animal scores of Fear of People were significantly and positively correlated with independent measures of poor welfare from two later studies: fecal corticoid concentrations for 12 black rhinos and "tense-fearful" scores for 12 cheetahs. Animal responses to keepers varied along three dimensions: Affinity to Keeper, Fear of People, and Sociable/Curious. Scores for animals and for keepers were calculated on these components and compared, according to five predictions based on models of human-animal interactions in the literature. Principle Components Analysis reduced eight animal variables to three components and ten keeper variables to five components. At each zoo, keepers were also videotaped calling to their animals in order to directly observe animal responses to keeper behaviors. These data include 219 individuals of four endangered species: black rhinoceros, cheetah, maned wolf, and great hornbill. Using standardized questionnaires, 82 keepers rated how they behaved towards animals, their husbandry routine, how the animal responds to them and to other people, and provided information about themselves. In the mid-1990s, a large body of multi-institutional data on zookeepers and animals was collected from 46 Zoos. This article begins to explore some of the factors that need to be considered to investigate Keeper-Animal Relationships (KARs) in the zoo. Research on intensively farmed animals over the past 25 years has shown that human-animal interactions, by affecting the animal's fear of humans, can markedly limit the productivity and welfare of farm animals.
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